Organization
1. MAC : Medium Access Control
2. Metrics for wireless MAC
3. MAC, Multiplexing, Duplexing
4. Multiplexing principles
5. Control Options
6. Multiple Access
7. Controp Options (2)
8. Error Control
MAC : Medium Access Control
Controls
- when and how a node is allowed to send a packet
- when a node has to listen for a packet
Medium Access in a wireless medium is faced with difficulites not present in a wireline medium
- Wireless channel erros. high attenuation, broadcast characteristics
- Limitation of RF technology
- Energy saving
Problems and challenges for MAC in a wireless medium
In a wired medium,
- Problem: Do not send when receiver is already receiving something
- Task: Decide at sender whether receiver is busy
This is usually easy since attenuation in wired medium is negligible - error rates are low, hence administration messages usually go through
In wireless medium,
- Sender and receiver see rather different signal/interference situation
Administration messages can easily get lost
Moreover: network topology & channel state can change due to movement – any negotiated schedules can become useless
Typical goal: Ensure that, in a given channel, a receiver only receives at most one packet at any given time
Metrics for wireless MAC
what are desirable properties for a wireless MAC?
(1) Throughput
- Per communication pair, or for an entire network
- Stable throughput S even under high offered load G
(2) Delay
- Time between a packet is ready to be transmittedand its successful reception
- Including possible retransmissions
- Should be small at low load
What are the characteristics of MAC?
(1) Fairness : Give equal opportunities to any communicating pair
(2) Energy efficiency : Do not waste energy for coordination, but also keep packet losses or needless transmissions low. Try to turn off nodes/radio frontends if possible
(3) Robustness to changing topology : Make sure that good throughput, delay, fairness are still achieved if neighborhood relationships changes frequently
(4) Possible: provide guarantees
- E.g., on throughput, delay
- For multimedia traffic
- Vaguely summarized by the term “Quality of Service” (QoS)
MAC, Multiplexing, Duplexing
Recall:
(1) Multiplexing: Share a resource (here, channel) among different communicating pairs, e.g. multiple data streams on one medium
(2) Duplexing: Given a pair‘s share, decide how to distribute resource between the two members of a pair, to communicate back and forth
MAC protocol can solve:
(1) Either only the multiplexing problem
(2) Then, specific rules for duplexing are needed in addition
(3) Or both multiplexing and duplexing problems
(4) With “duplexing” often not being regarded as a special case
Multiplexsing Principles
Multiplexing is a method by which multiple data streams are combined into one
signal over a shared medium \(\rightarrow\) share resources
- Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM) : several frequencies in RF systems
- Wavelength Division Multiplex (WDM) ~ FDM : several wavelengths, as used in optical systems
- Time Division Multiplex (TDM) : several time slots
- Space Division Multiplex (SDM) : several lines or channels
- Code Division Multiplex (CDM) : used in some mobile radio networks and some optical networks: One shared broadband channel where each user uses different (orthogonal) codes
Control Options
Control is a Decision problems for multiplexing
- FDM: Which frequency to use?
- TDM: Which timeslot to use?
- CDM: Which keys(code) to use?
- SDM: Where/in which(space) direction to use a channel?
- Combined schemes: e.g., which frequency to use at which time
Solving these decision problems turns a multiplexing scheme into a medium access scheme!
Denoted by “Multiple Access”
- FDM \(\rightarrow\) FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access
- TDM \(\rightarrow\) TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access
- CSMA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access (a time based MAC scheme for WLAN)
Multiple Access
A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a multiple access method or channel access method, for example TDM into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and statistical multiplexing into Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA). And Multiple Access method makes it possible for several transmitters or sending stations or users connected to the same physical medium to share its capacity. Multiplexing is provided by the Physical Layer of the OSI model, while multiple access also involves a Medium Access Control protocol, which is part of the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) (so we say LL&MAC here for Layer 2)
Communication System | Multiplexing | MAC protocol | Data rate |
ISDN | TDM | TDMA | 64 kBit/s |
GSM (2G) | TDM, FDM (frequency & timeslot) |
FDMA, TDMA - each user gets a frequency pair and a timeslot at communication start - Base station schedules. |
~ 10 kBit/s |
UMTS (3G) | CDM | Each user uses all frequencies, W-CDMA for separation |
~ 300 kBit/s |
LTE (4G) | OFDM | OFDMA every 1 msec a user gets different resource blocks |
~ MBit/s |
WLAN | OFDM | CSMA - one user uses whole channel and has to check before sending - Each user decides. |
~10 MBit/s |
Control Options
(1) Where to solve these decision problems?
- Centralized – At a single node, responsible for a wireless network
- Distributed – Each node makes local decisions
(2) How to solve decision problem?
- Avoid possible problems by arranging before resource access
\(\qqaud \qqaud\) Scheduled or Contention-free protocols
- Accept the risk that transmissions may occasionally collide
\(\qqaud \qqaud\) Contention-based protocols
- Hybrid protocols, combining both aspects
(3) Who initiates solving decision problem?
Sender or receiver?, e.g. always the base station
(4) When is decision problem solved?
- More or less once – static schemes, e.g. GSM
- Frequently, possibly for every packet – dynamic schemes, e.g. LTE (every 1 ms)
Error Control
(1) Automatic Repeat Request : ARQ
- Retransmission of a lost or faulty packet
- Reactively adds redundancy i.e. packet transmission delay and use of channel resources only occurs if a packet cannot be received properly
(2) Forward Error Correction : FEC
- Channel coding
- proactively adds redundancy i.e. every packet contains extra information to recover from bit errors
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